Herbal Lichenology

Todays class was an introduction and look at the world of fungi and lichens - shown on two seperate blogs.

In the morning session, Louise Olley took us through herbal lichenology: identification and uses of lichens. There is a lack of expertise in the UK - hence the use of lichen's is not really embraced in western medicine.

A lichen is formed from a fungi and an algae - it's a symbiotic relationship between the two. The fungi fruit i.e. the mushroom, is the fruiting body, while the rest is below ground.
The fungi contains the protective substances e.g. protection from desiccation, herbivores and UV light, while thhe algae provides the nutritional source from photosynthesis.
The relationship between the fungi and the algae is referred to as symbiotic, they both benefit, however the exact function of the relationship isn't exactly known. The result of this relationship, the lichen thallus, can exploit many different habitats, such as the top of everest, or even car moulding - where other botanicals struggle to grow.

"thallus" is the main body of the botanical i.e. the plant
"fruiting body" is like the flower, its the sexual reproductive part of the plant

There are four different thallus types for identification:
"fruticose" - this thallus type has two algal layer's, resulting in it being green all the time, for maximum photosynthetic orientation (to capture the most light).

"foliose" - this thallus type looks "leafy", the algae is on the upper side of the leaf, its greener as this is where photosynthesis happens, whereas the lower side contains no algae and is darker, and usually against the trunk or rock base what it is growing on. This thallus type also has small root like structures to help it attach to its growth surface, called rhizines.

"crustose" - this thallus type becomes integrated with the surface to which its growing, looking microscopically at the botanical, the root structures can be seen growing between the cracks in the rock.

"leprose" - this thallus type is often mistaken for algae, its powdery and moves quite easily when touched.

Lichen's disperse themselves easily, when touched by animals or passing movement, they break off - they're fairly brittle - also referred to as fragmentation.

"soredia" - pustulate bundles, are the lichen's reproduction system. The soredia is a fungal hyphae surrounding algal cells - they are usually seen in clusters.

There are several different fruiting bodies that can be displayed on the thallus. Examples of fruiting bodies are:

- Apothecia - nicknamed "jammed hearts" with either a lecidine (no margin) layout or a lecanorine (thaline margin, the fruits are part of the thallus, hence the same colour)

- Perithecia - small pimplese, cones, with a hole in the top

- Podetia - nicknamed "pixies cups"

- Pin heads

- Arthonioid - nicknamed "squashy messes" - no obvious structures - look like smudges on the surface

- Lirellae - nicknamed "script lichens" - look like ancient writing and have been mistaken as such

Lichen's have many uses, such as:

- Fibre (clothing, housing, cooking, sanitation)

- Fuel

- Navigation

- Insect repellent/insecticide

- Preservatives (for food or beer)

- Narcotics

- Tanning (Lobaria pulmonaria)

- Fermentation (Lobaria pulmonaria)

- Camouflage

- Food - mystery death of Caribou, moved off habitat in response to food shortage, same lichens in different area were more toxic / used for famine or eaten as a delicacy / very low nutritional value

- Perfumes and Cosmetics - 'oak moss' forms the basis of certain exclusive perfumes because of its musk-like fragrance and fixative properties - holds the smell together when the alcohol evaporates (guarded secret) / ingredients lists only state "contains lichens" but doesn't state which

- Medicine - The Doctrine of Signatures - God was giving you the answer, find a plant that looks like the body part of disease to cure it

- Embalming - light-weight, highly absorptive, delays decay, antibiotic, aromatic - helps towards mummification, stops haemorrhaging - historically used to stop bleeding

- Poison - The Wolf Lichen (Letharia vulpina) was used in Scandinavia to cul the wolf population.

- pH indicator - litmus means 'coloured moss' but its actually lichens that are used to make litmus paper - the filter paper has been treated with a natural water-soluble dye - now replaced by a synthetic version.

- Dyes - brown and red dyes are extracted from Parmelia and Evernia they're used to dye wool and produce the "Harris Tweed" of Scotland / Orchil (purple dyes) are the earliest documented dye used in Ancient Rome for the togas

 Evernia:

- was used to form the first talcum powder - ground up mixed with rose petals - used on wigs and as a body powder - used for the smell and to kill headlice.

- was used for wadding in an old shotgun

- used as flavouring in middle eastern bread

Lichens in dermatology:

"Lichen Planus" is a skin disease, so named because it looks lichen growing on the skin, has no relation to the lichen.

Lumbermen - contact dermatitis through overexposure, leading to eczema and skin complaints - very rare today as machines are used.

Lichens are also used as hallucinogens, Amazonian tribes in Equador use tropical lichens to achieve trance-like states. Nenendape causes intense hallucinations - the Huaorani use it to call upon malevolent spirits to curse people. However these lichens used to cause sterility - it was very potent. There form of protection or of monitoring population numbers?

After Louise Olley's lecture, we had a practical session, from bags of mixed lichens we firstly had to seperate the different thallus types - of which there were three in the bag: foliose, fructicose and crustose:

Our next task was to tell the difference between Usnea and Bryoria - commonly known as "Old Mans Beard". The two lichens look identical (spare the colour difference in these photos), to tell the difference the lichen's must be wetted and then you have to pull them apart, taking a thicker stem and slowly seperating it.

Bryoria just breaks when wet, however, Usnea stems have an inner core, and when pulled apart the outer core breaks easily, but you'll find the inner core is slightly more elastic and takes slightly more before it breaks - similar to a tendon.

Bryoria is on the left, Usnea on the right, and below is Usnea's outer and inner cores.

Random interesting facts:

To put the lichens in the herbarium, they must be put in a deep freeze for four days, to kill any bacteria or contaminents, this however does not kill the lichen.

If a lichen is taken from the herbarium and water is added to the specimen, there is a possibility the algae may reform.

Lichen's can also survive for up to two weeks in an outer space vaccum, however they do lose the ability to reproduce effectively.

The second part of the day continued after the lunch break, and will be updated on a seperate blog post.

Making our first Ointment

The aim of todays class was to create our own ointment.

Some would say there are subtle differences between an ointment, balm and salve - however the only real differences are uses and consistency e.g. ointment - more liquid consistency, salve - more solid consistency, and a balm - creamier... however these are personal decisions.

So, what is an ointment?

Well... it's a herbal remedy - it's also fun to make, which is good for us. It contains three basic ingredients: a good oil, a herbal element and beeswax (can have various forms). You infuse the oil with the herbal element and solidify with beeswax (simply put) - the more wax you add, the more solid the ointment will become and vice versa.
When rubbed onto the skin, the ointment will melt - "icclued" means seal; the ointment forms a protective barrier with the beeswax, which is waterproof, this gives the oil time to be absorbed into the tissues. The icclusion effect encourages deep tissue absorption.

An ointment is vulnary, which means wound healing. It's not to be used on broken or bleeding skin - they're not a quick, astringent fix, they have a more slow-healing response, can be used for dry, irritant conditions.

One of the earliest forms of plaster, were pigs skin or leather coated on one-side with the chosen herbal remedy.

Classic oils to use during a preparation (all moisturising and promote healing) are olive oil, almond oil (almost clear, no odour, very little colour) or coconut oil (for vegans), all liquify readily on contact with the body. The choice of oil comes into play for aesthetics, and resulting patient compliancy (psychological appeal) - e.g. choice and fragrance.
Left bowl = almond oil, right bowl = olive oil. The bottle with the orange label is Seabuckthorn oil.

Before making a herbal remedy, there is really one rule of thumb: what is this for? What am I making it for? What is the reasoning?

Prior to starting making our herbal ointment, we discussed some of the quintessential utensils that will greatly facilitate the Herbologists art of home herbal remedy-making... such as pestle & mortar's, electronic weighing scales, sieces and strainers, mixing bowl selection, measuring jug selection, spoons, knives etc... we also discussed the benefit of a Bain-Marie... effectively a water bath - which we would use later.

There are also some utensils, that aren't essential, but will come in useful, such as... a juicer, a grinder, blender, dehydrator or a percolator, such as the "home-made" variety shown below...

Beeswax can be found in many forms... from fragments of the hive (which contains wax, honey and pieces of the hive - it must be boiled to seperate the three components)...

You can also use the beeswax in small chips or in larger clumps...

The next stage is to choose your herbal element, there can easily be more than one, they, however, must be complimentary and usually no more than 5 herbs are used, or less than one - unless you're developing a "simple". Once you have chosen your herbal element - in class we were using comfrey root, which had to be washed, peeled and either grated or chopped finely.

The chopped up root, which had an extreme mucilage component, was then put into glass jam jars, and covered in the oil of your choice - I chose almond oil, as it was non-fragranced and very pale, which was suitable for asthetics, the jars were then put into a water bath, and left to simmer for 20 minutes or if you choose, it can be left overnight in a very low heat oven (or in a cooling oven).

During this simmering process, the aromatic principles and active components of the herbal element chosen will infuse into the oil.
Once its had around 20 minutes - this time varies dependent on different sections of the plant, there is no real difference between the leaf, root or flower of the plant... however bark may need more time, and delicate flowers may need substansially less. Delicate flowers etc work better with the slower remedy making method, a window sill infusion. The basic process is the same, however instead of using a water bath, the jar of oil is left on the window sill for several weeks in a warm climate (such as a class room) for the components to infuse naturally, the jar has to be shaken gently once a day with this method...

Now and again stir the root in the oil, just to keep the infusion moving...

Sieve the herb out of the oil, compost the herb element and return the clear oil back to the water bath - you can now add the beeswax... 2 tbsp per half jar, 3 tbsp if you want a more solid ointment - personally I used 3 tbsp of beeswax flakes...

Once melted, remove and allow to cool, add 5-6 drops of fragrance - I chose 2 drops of silver birch (a hard, burnt wood smell, that after you'd got over the initial shock of it, it sat as a low dense undertone), 4 drops of lemonbalm and 4 drops of lavender. Once mixed, bottle the ointment and label appropriately - as the ointment sets the smell appears to disappear, then when put on the skin etc the smell returns lightly.

The ointment can then be stored in the fridge and used when needed.

Collecting & sowing our own seeds

The aim of today's class was to collect and sow our own seeds, learning the correct procedures for sowing and planting seeds, as well as gathering.

In the morning, we all went over to the library to have a look at the "Hortus Medicus Edinburghensis" - a list of the botanicals that had originally been in RBGE. We had to carefully flick through the book, listing the names, both English and Latin, of any medicinal botanicals that caught our attention, for future reference, but really just to get a grip of what the gardens used to have and why we didn't offer them anymore... in relation to the medicinal botanicals this just means why did we used to grow them, what were they used for and why don't we grow them nor use them anymore.

The term "offic" next to the plants names, means medicinial. Plants I noted down that were medicinal that caught my interest were:
- white archangel
- the white flowered Lilly of the Valey (coped directly from the book, hence the wrong spellings)
- common polypod - Polypodium vulgare
- herbe true-love or one-berry - Solanum quadrifolium bacciferum
                      in the same family:
                      - common nightshade - Solanum officinarum
                      - deadly nightshade - Solanum manicum multis
- common black henbane - Hyoscyamus niger - active component: hyoscyamine
- the wholesome Helmet flower - Aconitum falcufeum five Anthora
- Hercules his All-beall - Panax paftinacae folio, an syriacum theophrafti

General botanicals that caught my eye were:
- the great mountain melancholy - Thistle
- double scarlet flower of Constantinople
- ladies smock or cuckow-flowers
- the lesser purging-thorn of Hungary
- wolvesbane - winter aconite - Aconitum unifolium luteum bulbofum
- hyoscine - Belladonna - Atropa belladonne - lethale, maniacum, furiosum; English name: Dwale, derived from old provincial word - dwaul (dwaelen - Dutch) to wander, to be delirious - active component: atropine
- tree of life - Thuya theophialti

For background information, "The British Flora Medica" by Barton and Castle is really good.

Before lunch we went out into the gardens to collect seeds for the afternoon class. We began by collecting medlars...

After collecting copious amounts of medlars, we moved to the Herbology beds... however they'd pretty much up-rooted everything or cut everything away from the beds, so we carefully picked seeds from the last remaining plants - surprise surprise, the poisonous plants!

I collected Belladonna...

We also collected Datuna stramonium - a botanical that can help to alleviate asthma or asthmatic attacks...

One we got the botanicals into the classroom, we slowly dissected them to remove the seeds - I dissected Belladonna berries to release the seeds, which needed to be dried considerably as the juice inside the berry, while being a deep purple shade, was viscous and sticky. (A profile about Belladonna, a shorter one for homework and a longer more indepth profiling will soon be completed and uploaded).

After lunch we headed up to the Nursery, and before beginning the lesson, we went to collect seeds from the Dip. Herb. Grad beds...

Once in the potting shed, we slowly removed the seeds from their pods and gathered them together ready for sowing. The sowing was relatively straight forward (as displayed in the following photos)... the larger seeds were placed, and gravel was used to cover them, to give them more resistance to grow through. The smaller seeds were scattered and lightly covered in soil...

We have now planted a small range of medicinal botanicals that will slowly germinate, hopefully, up in the Nursery, in time for planting next year.

(1) Sloes - Prunus spinosa

Background

Sloe’s, otherwise known as Blackthorn, is a species of Prunus native to Europe, western Asia, and locally in northwest Africa (1). It is a deciduous large shrub or small tree growing to around 5 metres tall, with blackish bark, and stiff, spiny branches (1). They have creamy-white flowers with five petals, which are produced shortly before the leaves in early spring (1). They are hermaphroditic and insect-pollinated (1). The fruit, a “sloe” is a drupe – a soft fleshy fruit surrounding a shell which contains a single seed (2), they are black with a pale purple-blue waxy bloom, ripening in the autumn, and harvested, traditionally, at least in the UK, in October and November, after the first frosts (1).

The fruit is similar to a small damson or plum, however they are rather tart and astringent tasting when fresh, unless deeply frozen, as is practised in eastern Europe (1), the berries taste better and not so bitter if harvested after a few frosts (3). Ancient folk used to bury the sloes in straw-lined pits for a few months to ripen them and make them sweeter (3). A Neolithic lake village in Glastonbury was found to have such a pit, full of sloe stones (3).

In rural Britain, sloe gin is produced from the fruit, it is an infusion of gin, sugar or neutral spirits, which produces a liqueur (1). In Navarre, Spain, a popular liqueur called “patxaran” is made with sloes; they can also be used to make jam, and if preserved in vinegar, are similar in taste to Japanese umeboshi (1).

Much folklore surrounds the Blackthorn (3). It was believed that Christ’s Crown of Thorn’s was made from Blackthorn; to bring Blackthorn blossom into the home meant a certain death would follow (3). In Herefordshire and Worcestershire, a wreath or globe of Blackthorn twigs would be scorched on a fire on New Year's morning and then burned in a wheatfield in the furrows and its ashes scattered over the wheat; then a new globe or wreath would be made and hung in the farmhouse kitchen ready for next year (3). It was believed that this ritual would rid the field of the devil (3). In a similar vein, Blackthorn would be scorched and hung up with mistletoe for good luck (3).

Blackthorn in bloom is considered an emblem of life and death together as the flowers appear when the tree has no leaves, just black bark and thorns (3). It is considered wise not to grow three trees closely together (3). It is said that a Hawthorn will destroy any Blackthorn near it; on the Isle of Man it is believed that if the Blackthorn and the Hawthorn have many berries then the ensuing winter will be severe (3).

In Irish folklore it was believed that the "little people" lived in Blackthorn bushes (3). Fairy tribes, called Lunantishees, are said to guard Blackthorn trees and will not let you cut branches off it on 11 November or 11 May - if you do you will be cursed with bad luck (3). It was also bad luck to wear the flowers in your buttonhole (3). Another belief was that a Blackthorn wand with thorns fixed to the ends was harmful; while a carved rod carried by Devonshire witches was thought to cause miscarriage (3).

The flowers produce nectar for humblebees and early-flying Small Tortoiseshell butterflies (3). The leaves provide food for the larvae of Black and Brown Hairstreak butterflies (3). The tree is also the food plant for the caterpillars of the following moths - March, Common Emerald, Little Emerald, Mottle Pug, Feathered Thorn, Orange, Scalloped Hazel, Scalloped Oak, Swallowtailed, Brimstone, August Thorn, Early Thorn, Pale Brindled Beauty, Blue Bordered Carpet, Broken Barred Carpet, November, Pale November, Winter, Sloe Pug, Green Pug, Sharp Angled Peacock and The Magpie (3). In fact, Blackthorn supports around 153 species of wildlife; it is particularly favoured by nightingales (3).

The sharp thorns have been used for centuries as awls (3). Blackthorn is also the traditional wood used in wands for tribal medicine people and wise women etc (3). It is also used to make the traditional Irish shillelagh - cudgel - used in fighting sports (3). The tree also makes good firewood, marquetry and walking sticks (3).

Nutritional and Medicinal Background – Including Medieval Medicinal Uses

Studies have shown that 100g dry weight of the fruits of Prunus  spinosa, contains considerable levels of vitamin A, in the form of B-carotene, vitamin E, vitamin B1, B2, B6 and niacin to satisfy the dietary requirements of all life stage groups (4). However, vitamin C and folate levels were noted to be lower than necessary to satisfy the dietary requirements of all life stage groups (4). The higher presence of vitamin E, B-carotene and folate in the sloes gives the fruit considerable antioxidant quantities.

Organic acids in the fruits are significant raw materials for the fruit juice industry, such as malic acid, lactic acid, citric acid and fumaric acid; there were no detectable levels of quinic acid found in the fruit (4). The volumes of acid found in the fruit explain its astringent taste when eaten raw. The genotype and growing conditions of the fruits can alter the limits of the different acids in the fruits (4).

Sloes contain a number of minerals such as calcium, potassium, magnesium and sodium (5).

The dried juice of the berries makes gum acacia (3). The flowers and fruit make a good tonic for diarrhoea and other bowel problems (3). Sloe syrup has anti-rheumatic properties and can help fight flu (3). The plant is also good for nosebleeds, constipation and eye pain (3). Sloe berries were first used by herbalists for treating stomach problems and blood disorders (3). Sloes can also be made into a paste for whitening teeth and removing tartar (3).

Shlomo Yitzhaki, a Talmudist and Tanakh, commentator of the High Middle Ages, has written that the sap (or gum) of Prunus spinosa (or what he refers to as the prunellier) was used as an ingredient in the making of some inks used for manuscripts (1).

When cooking, the sloes high pectin content means that they are sometimes combined with other fruit in jams and jellies to encourage the preserve to set (6). When preparing the sloes for making either sloe gin, fruit wine or sloe-flavoured vinegar, they can either be pricked all over with a needle, or put in the freezer for a couple of days so that the skins split (6).

Sloe syrup is a traditional remedy for fighting off the flu, and due to its potent antioxidant qualities, they may well have many alternative medicinal uses (7).

The flowers of the Blackthorn appear before the leaves, both of which can be used for tea, traditionally only the flowers are used (8). They are mildly stimulating for the whole body: mildly diuretic, mildly diaphoretic and mildly laxative (8). They ‘cleanse the blood’, and make a great supportive tea for those who like to do internal ‘spring cleanses’ (8).

1.       http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prunus_spinosa

2.       http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=drupe

3.       http://www.englishplants.co.uk/bthorn.html

4.       Ozcan, T., “Some vitamin and organic acid contents in the fruits of Prunus spinosa L. subsp. dasyphylla (Schur) Domain from Europe-in-Turkey”, IUFS Journal of Biology (2008), 67(2):105-114

5.       http://www.northyorkshirelocalfood.co.uk/in_season_detail.php?season=autumn#Sloes

6.       http://uktv.co.uk/food/ingredient/aid/509821

7.       http://www.suite101.com/content/hedgerow-fruit-harvest-for-vitamin-c-goodness-a151175

8.       http://www.sacredearth.com/ethnobotany/foraging/Sloe.php